Transitions and linking words
Sentence transitions (also called sentence connectors or linking adverbials) as well as complex prepositions have the primary function of connecting ideas between sentences and identifying the relationship between ideas (Swales & Feak, 1994). Most textbooks for ESL learners encourage the use of sentence transitions because, as most textbook authors believe, they help novice writers establish clear cohesion between the ideas expressed in adjoining sentences and overtly mark the flow of information in discourse. Teachers also emphasize these sentence linkers because they are relatively easy to explain and also because the ideas in L2 writing may occasionally seem so disjointed that every little bit can help. The major problem with sentence connectors in L2 academic writing is that, because these linkers are easy to understand and use, NNS writers employ far too many of them in their text. The second issue with these features of academic prose is that the use of sentence transitions does not necessarily make the L2 academic writing cohesive or the information flow easy to follow (Hinkel, 200la, 2002a). The following example from a student's text illustrates this point:
First, the teenage crime rate is increasing very fast. Besides, the age of criminals is going down. Therefore, this is a serious problem. The society structure is toward the money principle, and moreover, everybody thinks that money is the most important thing. But, it is about the source of crime. In addition, the common crime for teenagers is stealing because they lack money. Nevertheless, sociologists have debated how to prevent teenage crime. Conclusively, family is the basic component of society, and family problems can cause teenagers to do maleficent things because their family cannot let them feel warm. Thus, they lack parents' love and care.
In light of the emphasis on sentence transitions in writing instruction for university-level students, the misuse and overuse of these cohesive devices is not particularly surprising. In L2 writing, an important point to stress is that the uses of sentence transitions cannot make the text unified when the ideas in discourse flow are disjointed no matter how many transitions are employed.
Forms of transitions
- Adding
- Argument
- Cause and consequence
- Concession and counter-argument
- Contradiction
- Contrast: balancing contrasting points
- Contrast: emphasising a contrast
- Emphasizing
- Focusing and linking (participle clauses)
- Generalising
- Giving examples
- Making things clear
- Similarity
- Structuring
- Subject: change of subject
- Subject: returning to a previous subject
- Summarizing
Transition is like the cement of your writing and consists of the set of devices that glue it together and make it form a whole. The most common examples of these devices are dealt with Swan's Practical English Usage, (Oxford University Press: 1995) under the heading Discourse Markers. The term ‘discourse markers' is used in a more specific sense in linguistics to describe "sequentially dependent elements which demarcate units of speech, such as oh, well, and I mean" (Crystal 2003: 141). More generally speaking, a discourse marker is a linguistic device that sets off a particular piece of discourse and it can serve many purposes. In writing, these markers can function at sentence, paragraph and chapter level. At chapter level however, you will be often obliged to use whole paragraphs as a means of transition, as a marker would not be sufficient for rounding off one section and introducing the next. What follows is a brief outline of the various functions of discourse markers.
Of course, there are other devices or discourse markers, though many are less formal than the ones we have listed here and are more apt for use in conversation rather than in writing. And a conversational style is not what we are striving for after all. The markers that we have provided here should be enough to help you on your way towards writing in a clear academic style, however. More often than not, these transitions are followed by a comma. More information onf punctuating transitions
Adding
| in addition, again, as well as that, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, in addition, moreover, next, too, what is more |
These expressions are used to add information or arguments to what has already been said.
The prime minister was unwilling to admit that he was mistaken. What is more, he continued to insist that the blame lay elsewhere.
The people were desperately short of food. In addition, they were in urgent need of medical care.
He gave a full list of reasons for his behaviour. Moreover, he admitted that he had failed to notice that the situation had in fact changed.
- As a conjunct, besides has a very specific meaning: 'I have just provided a series of arguments for supporting a claim; here is the last argument, and it is the decisive one, perhaps even strong enough to make the other arguments more or less irrelevant'.
Besides, the government would never go for a referendum anyway because they know it would go against them.
It must not be used to present one more point in a sequence. Here is an example from a student essay which illustrates how it should not be used:
*If one marries too early, being close may suddenly be suffocating or frightening, and it can be a struggle to find the right balance between intimacy and independence. But with cohabitation there are fewer financial obligations, it gives both partners more freedom, and it prevents women from being dependent on their men. Besides, when separating, women can at least claim social security benefits in their own right.
In this case besides should be replaced by a connective like moreover.
- Although furthermore and moreover are described as more or less synonymous in most dictionaries, there are nevertheless subtle differences. The main use of furthermore is to add one more point to a list of points already made. Moreover, on the other hand, is rhetorically more powerful than furthermore in that it tends to introduce an argument which has greater weight for the writer. The expression what is more is very similar to moreover.
He is old and unpopular. Furthermore, he has at best only two years of political life ahead of him.
The rent is reasonable and, moreover, the location is perfect.
- The closest English translations of naast in the sense of 'in addition to' are alongside and indeed in addition to, but not *beside or *besides. Accordingly, daarnaast can best be translated as in addition.
Argument
| evidently, for one thing, obviously |
- For one thing introduces the first argument supporting a claim made in the previous sentence
Many people prefer Central American to South American food. For one thing, there is more variety in the spices used.
It is not used to introduce illustrations of a point made, nor to introduce the first in a series of elaborations. Here is an example of how for one thing should not be used:
*Brochures, for instance, are a specific type of media with specific characteristics. For one thing, brochures are generally read by people who have a certain knowledge ...
A more appropriate connective here would be for example.
Cause and consequence
| accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, so, then, therefore |
He was forced to resign and was therefore unable to continue his innovative work.
The theory was proved to be false and as a result we had to abandon it.
- Accordingly is rather formal and by no means the most common of the causal connectives. Nevertheless, it is useful to add to your collection because it differs from other causal connectives in one subtle respect. Accordingly expresses a causal relation where the resulting action is natural rather than a necessary consequence. Accordingly is hardly ever used by Dutch writers. One reason may be that there is not a straightforward Dutch equivalent.
For many decades Britain and the United States enjoyed a special relationship. Accordingly, the red carpet was well and truly rolled out every time the political leaders met.
- You use consequently when you want to stress that there is very good reason to deduce one thing from another.
In many murder enquiries absolute secrecy is a prerequisite for succcess. Consequently, the press is often kept in the dark about police activities.
- Like therefore, hence expresses the idea that what follows is a necessary deduction from what precedes. However, while therefore stresses the relative importance of what follows, you can use hence to emphasize the relative importance of what went before. As such, a clause with hence may be often interpreted as a kind of illustration of the previous statement. Note that hence is a conjunct and not a conjunction; it cannot therefore be used as a means of clause combining. It does, however, have a very specific use in combination with a noun phrase rather than a clause.
The company has just announced that all state schools are to introduce CDi into the classroom by 1995, hence the recent advertising campaign directed at young parents.
Here, the company's announcement is presented as a kind of explanation for the recent advertising campaign, which itself is presented as if the reader already knew about its existence. The nearest Dutch equivalent here is vandaar, although it is less formal than hence.
- Of the causal connectives, so is the most general in meaning; it is also the most informal. For these two reasons, we recommend that you avoid it wherever possible and use a more specific expression instead. This is particularly true for so at the beginning of the sentence, where alternatives include accordingly, consequently, hence and therefore. The conjunction so that is quite acceptable, but it can also be replaced by with the result that.
- Therefore introduces a statement which is a logical deduction from what precedes. It suggests a close and strong relationship, and as such is similar to the conjunction because. You should be careful not to use it where a much less direct causal relation is involved. Often the best position for therefore in terms of rhythm is not at the beginning of a sentence but rather immediately before the verb or immediately after if the first verb is a form of be or of auxiliary have.
Many people therefore regard the situation in Ireland as potentially explosive.
It is therefore recommended that employees make use of the new facilities.
Note that therefore does not need separating from the rest of the sentence by commas.
- Namelijk is often used in Dutch in an independent sentence to provide an explanation or justification for what has been said in the previous sentence. English has a number of possible equivalents, byt *namely is definitely not one of them. Here is an example of how not to use it:
*Socially, older couples who have a baby are likely to become isolated. Other couples of their age, namely, are retired and are not housebound because of a child.
Useful options for translating namelijk include the point is and the fact is if you wish to retain an independent sentence, and because and since if you wish to indulge in clause combining.
Concession and counter-argument
|
a) Concession: it is true, of course, certainly, if, may, stressed do b) Counter-argument: but, even so, nevertheless, nonetheless, all the same, still, yet |
These expressions use a three-part structure: (1) the writer mentions the facts that point in a certain direction; (2) (the concession) it is agreed that a particular contradictory fact points the other way; but the writer dismisses this and returns to the original direction of the argument.
Very few people understood Einstein's theory. Of course, many had heard about 'relativity'. But hardly anyone could tell what he had actually said.
It was a successful final. The champions, if a little surprised by their opponents fire were nevertheless impressed by their sense of fair play.
He was pleased with his marks. It was true that he could have done better and that his oral exam was only average. Still, the subject was extremely difficult.
He could not agree with colonialism. It is true that they did do some good when ruling the country. Even so, colonialism is still basically wrong.
He was incapable of making up his mind. Certainly, he had made some decisions in the past. All the same, they were more forced on him by the circumstances than anything else.
- Yet is similar in meaning to the conjuncts however and nevertheless and to the conjunction but, but involves the additional interpretation that what follows is seen as surprising given what has gone before:
Unemployment has fallen by 10% and yet the public remains sceptical about reports of economic revival.
On the other hand, it behaves like a coordinating conjunctions in cases like this:
Every year, hundreds of people die because their planned operations are postponed, yet hospitals still appear to be unable to rectify the situation.
This is therefore not to be rejected as a case of comma splicing.
Contradiction
| on the contrary |
- Despite the fact that on the contrary is equivalent to integendeel in Dutch, many learners of English have great problems in using it. What it means is this: 'I have just said that something is not the case; I am not going to reinforce that and go one step further by saying that the opposite is true, and here it is'.
This did not result in his ruin. On the contrary, it only made him more rich and famous.
The Dutch have never shown any ill feeling towards their royal family; on the contrary, they appear to have unerring faith in everything they do.
Contrast: balancing contrasting points
| by comparison, by contrast, in contrast; on the one hand ..., on the other hand ... |
These devices are used to balance contrasting facts of arguments and are handy for structuring contrast and comparison within paragraphs or for setting two paragraphs off against each other.
The Irish voted for the Maastricht Treaty. The Danes, on the other hand, voted against it at first.
- By contrast and in contrast are useful expressions for contrasting two statements but are underused by Dutch writers. By contrast tends to occur initially, while in contrast occurs initially or following the subject.
Surprisingly, prices in most European countries have fallen over the last three years. By contrast, prices in Britain have risen by a staggering 15%.
England and Wales have very few mountains over 3,000 feet. Scotland, in contrast, has over three hundred of them.
Contrast: emphasising a contrast
| contrary to, on the contrary, however, nevertheless, in spite of this, still, yet |
These words draw our attention to the second part of a comparison on contrast.
Exports were down for the first half of the year. However, they did manage to recover by the autumn.
Growth rates were not as high as expected. Nevertheless, there is a slight improvement on the previous financial year.
Sales were up. Still/Yet, trading was not as lively as it should have been for the time of the year.
The political instability resulting from this crisis is still highly visible. In spite of this, the government still seems confident that the situation will soon improve.
- Contrary to is often translated as in tegenstelling tot; however, the English expression is more restricted in its use than the Dutch expression, which can be used widely, as in in tegenstelling tot Jan/jou/gisteren/wat de meeste mensen denken. By contrast, contrary to is restricted to beliefs and opinions. Contrary to popular belief, for instance, is a standard expression in English, but you can also say:
Contrary to what most people think, ...
Contrary to what is often assumed, ...
- Despite the fact that on the contrary is equivalent to integendeel in Dutch, many learners of English have great problems using it. What it means is this: 'I have just said that something is not the case; I am now going to reinforce that and go one step further by saying that the opposite is true, and here it is'.
The Dutch have never shown any ill feeling towards their royal family; on the contrary, they appear to have unerring faith in everything they do.
Emphasizing
| absolutely, always, certainly, definitely, emphatically, eternally, extremely, forever, in any case, in fact, indeed, never, naturally, obviously, perennially, positively, surprisingly, undeniably, unquestionably, without a doubt, without reservation |
Focusing and linking (participle clauses)
| as far as ... is concerned; as for; with reference to; regarding; as regards, talking/speaking of/about |
These words focus our attention on what is going to be said by announcing the subject in advance. Some make a link with what has gone before by referring back to it. Examples of these markers are: as far as ... is concerned; as for; with reference to; regarding; as regards; talking/speaking of/about;
As far as the positive aspects of monetary union are concerned, we can see few countries objecting to them.
As regards/Regarding the point mentioned in the previous chapter/paragraph, I would like to make two further comments.
With reference to the second main point of his thesis, we do find some grounds for support, however.
While speaking about/ while on the subject of a common defence policy, I think it is worthwhile commenting on some of its more obscure aspects as well.
- Dutch writers often use as for as a variation on as far as X is concerned and with regard to. However, you need to be very careful when using this expression, since in fact it is highly contrastive. The expression as to is similar to as for.
As for complete integration, that is quite a different matter.
Generalizing
| on the whole, in general, in all/most/many/some cases, broadly speaking, to a great/large extent, to some extent, apart from ..., except for |
These expressions can also be used to round off an argument or to draw a conclusion.
On the whole, the theory proved useful.
In general, they were satisfied with y work.
Broadly speaking, the field can be divided into three main areas.
In most cases, the facts proved to be correct.
Apart from the second movement, I though that the symphony was excellent.
Giving examples
| For example, for instance, in particular |
There really is no difference between for example and for instance, neither meaning nor in stylistic effect.
In particular, we think that the quality of the bricks used for the building was inferior.
Making things clear; giving details
| actually, I mean, in other words, that is to say |
We cannot continue with the deal on this basis. That is to say/in other words, unless you bring down your price we will have to cancel the order.
Similarity
| in the same way, likewise, similarly, |
These markers are useful in analogies or for creating parallels in reasoning.
The roads are usually very crowded at the beginning of the holidays. Similarly, there are often serious road accidents at the end of the holidays.
The government denounced the attack. In the same way, the opposition issued a statement expressing their outrage.
- Similarly and likewise are used at the beginning of the sentence to show that the situation or action you are about to describe is very similar to the one you described in the previous sentence. They could be paraphrased as: 'and what I am now going to say about a different topic is that the situation is in fact very much the same'. Dutch does not really have a ready-made equivalent; the closest is eveneens. Notice, however, that similarly and likewise have a much stronger cohesive force since they come at the beginning of the sentence, between the two ideas that they link.
Politicians tell so many lies that one can easily become angry when listening to parliamentary debates. Similarly, football is such an unfair sport that it is becoming very frustrating to watch.
Structuring
| finally, first(ly)/second(ly)/third(ly), first of all, lastly, finally, next, then, to begin with, to start with, in the first/second/third place |
Firstly we shall examine the paragraph, secondly the sentence.
Subject: change of subject
| now |
We have already examined how the motor functions. Now I would like to focus on performance levels of the vehicle.
Subject: returning to a previous subject
| as I have already mentioned/stated/shown/pointed out |
As I have already mentioned in chapter 2, this topic needs further analysis.
Summarizing
| briefly, in brief, in short |
You use briefly to announce that you are going to describe a situation without going into detail. You use in short, on the other hand, to introduce a summarizing statement, a statement which is as a rule only one sentence long. The Dutch equivalent is kortom. The situation is made more complicated by in brief, which you can use in both the ways described above. The Dutch equivalent is in het kort. Finally, note that shortly is not an option here. It means soon, and nothing else.
Sonia explained briefly what we had to do.
Carter hoped for greater trust between the two nations, more trade, more cultural exchanges - in short, a genuine peace.
We should, in brief, invest heavily in digital systems. (without going into details)
Here are today's headlines in brief. (summarizing)
Time
| after a few minutes/hours/..., finally, formerly, later, previously, soon, then, thereafter, |
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